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Chapter 25

New Worlds: The Americas and Oceania

1
Copyright © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display.

The Spanish Caribbean
 Spanish mariners meet indigenous Tainos
(Arawaks)
 Originally from Orinoco River valley in South
America, settled in Caribbean in late centuries BCE
through 900 CE
 Columbus uses Hispaniola (Haiti-Dominican
Republic) as base for trading with Tainos
 Disappointed that Tainos had no spices, silks
 Recruit locals to mine gold instead
 Encomienda: Forced labor
2

From Mining to Plantation Agriculture

 Tainos occasionally rebel, but outgunned by
Spanish military technology
 Smallpox epidemics begin 1518
 Spaniards launch raids to kidnap and replace workers,
spread disease further
 Taino society disappears by middle of 16th century
 Limited gold production causes new interest in
exploiting Caribbean for sugarcane production
 Requires massive importation of slaves

3

Conquest of Mexico and Peru

 Spanish conquerors (conquistadores) explore
other territories
 Hernán Cortés and 450 men bring down Aztec
empire in Mexico (1519-1521)
 Smallpox destroys besieged Tenochtitlan
 Francisco Pizarro and 600 men bring down Inca
empire in Peru (1532-1533)
 Calls conference of warring Inca rulers, massacres
them all

4

Spanish Colonial Administration
 Conquests of Mexico, Peru not the result of imperial
policy, but inspired greater efforts to expand Spanish
empire
 Spanish administration based in New Spain (Mexico) and
New Castile (Peru), extended to Florida and Buenos Aires
 Mexico city built atop Tenochtitlan, founded Lima in Peru
 Viceroys rule, but supervised by local courts called audiencias
designed to prevent buildup of local power bases
 Considerable dispute with Spanish homeland

5

Portuguese Brazil

 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas divides entire (non-
Christian) world between Spain and Portugal
 Portugal claims Brazil
 Little interest at first, but increases as other
imperial powers take notice
 Exploited for sugarcane production

6

Settler Colonies in North America
 Spanish towns, forts, missions on east coast of
North America, some on west coast
 Dislodged in 17th century by French, English,
Dutch mariners
 Permanent colonies in North America
 France: Nova Scotia (1604), Quebec (1608)
 England: Jamestown (1607), Massachusetts Bay
Colony (1630)
 Netherlands: New Amsterdam (1623)
 English take it in 1664, rename it New York

7

Colonial Government

 Exceptionally difficult conditions
 Starvation rampant, cannibalism occasionally practiced
 French, English private merchants invest heavily
in expansion of colonies
 Greater levels of self-government than Spanish
and Portuguese colonies

8

European empires and colonies in the
Americas about 1700

9

Relations with Indigenous Peoples

 North American peoples loosely organized,
migratory
 Unlike Aztec, Inca empires
 European colonists stake out forested land, clear it
for agriculture
 Increasing number of Europeans arrive seeking
ample land: 150,000 from England in 17th century

10

Conflict with Indigenous Peoples

 Colonists displace indigenous peoples, trespass on
hunting grounds
 English settlers negotiate treaties, poorly
understood by natives
 Military conflict frequent
 Natives also devastated by epidemic disease

11

North American Populations

8000000
7000000
6000000
5000000
Native
4000000
European
3000000 African
2000000
1000000
0
1500 1800

12

The Formation of Multicultural Societies

 European, African migrants primarily men
 Relationships with native women formed
 Mestizo (mixed) societies formed
 People of Spanish and native parentage
 Descendants of Spaniards and African slaves
(“mulattoes”)
 Descendants of African slaves and natives (“zambos”)
 Less pronounced in Peru

13

The Social Hierarchy

 Race-based hierarchy
 Top: peninsulares, i.e. migrants from Iberian
peninsula
 Criollos (creoles), i.e. children of migrants
 Mestizos, mulattoes, zambos, other combinations
of parentage
 Bottom: slaves, conquered peoples

14

North American Societies

 Higher ratio of French, English female migrants
than in South America
 Higher social stigma attached to relationships
with natives, African slaves
 Fur traders have relationships with North
American native women
 Children: métis

15

Mining in the Spanish Empire
 Hunt for gold and silver
 Conquistadores loot Aztec, Inca treasures and melt
them down for their value as raw precious metals
 Gold not extensive in Spanish holdings, but silver
relatively plentiful
 Extensive employment of natives
 Incan mita system of conscripted labor
 Dangerous working conditions
 Eventually assimilate into Spanish culture
 1/5 reserved for crown (quinta), hugely profitable

16

Global Significance of Silver

 Major resource of income for Spanish crown
 Manila Galleons take it to the Pacific rim for
trading
 Very popular with Chinese markets
 Also trade in the Atlantic basin

17

Manila galleon route and the lands of
Oceania, 1500-1800

18

The Hacienda

 Large estates produce products of European origin
 Wheat, grapes, meat
 Encomienda system of utilizing native labor force
 Rampant abuses 1520-1540
 Gradually replaced by debt patronage
 Peasants repay loans with cheap labor

19

A Hacienda in Chile

20

Resistance to Spanish Rule

 Rebellion
 1680 Pueblo Revolt
 1780 Túpac Amaru rebellion
 Half-hearted work
 Retreat into mountains and forests
 Appeal to Spanish crown
 1,200 page letter of Guaman Poma de Ayala, 1615

21

Sugar and Slavery in Portuguese Brazil
 Sugar mill: engenho, refers to complex of land,
labor, etc. all related to production of sugar
 Sugarcane to molasses, or refined to sugar for export
 Low profit margins
 Unlike Spanish system of forced native labor,
Portuguese rely on imported African slaves
 Natives continually evaded Portuguese forces
 Large-scale importing of slaves begins 1580s
 Working conditions poor: 5-10% die annually
 Approximately one human life per ton of sugar
22

Fur Trading in North America

 Indigenous peoples trade pelts for wool blankets,
iron pots, firearms, alcohol
 Beaver hunts cause frequent incursions into
neighboring territories, conflicts
 European settler-cultivators also displacing
natives from traditional lands
 Albeit initially dependent on native assistance, as
European grains did not grow well in many areas

23

Development of Cash Crops

 Products developed for European markets
 Tobacco
 Rice
 Indigo
 Cotton
 Increases demand for imported slave labor
 European indentured servants, 4-7 year terms
 Chronically unemployed, orphans, political prisoners and
criminals

24

Export of Tobacco from Virginia

300000

250000

200000

150000
Pounds
100000

50000

0
1616 1624 1638

25

Slavery in North America

 African slaves in Virginia from 1610
 Increasingly replace European indentured
laborers, late 17th-early 18th centuries
 Less prominent in north due to weak nature of
cash-crop industry
 Slave trading still important part of economy
 Also, products made through slave labor
 Rum, based on sugar from plantations

26

Missionary Activity in the Americas
 Franciscan, Dominican, Jesuit missionaries from 16th
century
 Taught Christian doctrine, literacy
 Often accumulated cultural knowledge to provide context
for effective missionizing
 Bernardino de Sahagún
 Due to conquest and plague, many natives in Spanish
America concluded that their gods had abandoned them,
converted to Catholicism
 Yet often retained elements of pagan religion in Christian
worship

27

The Virgin of Guadalupe

28

French and English Missions

 Less effective than Spanish missions
 Spaniards ruled native populations more directly
 Migration patterns of North American natives

29

Australia and the Larger World
 Broadly similar experiences to American natives
 Portuguese mariners long in the region, but Dutch sailors
make first recorded sighting of Australia in 1606
 VOC surveys territory, conclude that it is of little value
 Limited contact with indigenous peoples
 Nomadic, fishing and foraging societies
 British Captain James Cook lands at Botany Bay, 1770
 Convicts shipped to Australia, outnumber free settlers until 1830

30

Australian Aborigine

31

Pacific Islands and the Larger World
 Manila Galleons interested in quick trade routes, little
exploration of Pacific
 Islands of Guam and the Marianas significant, lay on trade routes
 1670s-1680s took control of islands, smallpox destroys local
population
 James Cook visits Hawai’I in 1778
 Good relationship with Hawaiians
 Sailors spread venereal disease
 Cook not welcomed in 1779, killed in dispute over petty thefts

32

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